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One could commission a funerary papyrus or purchase a stock copy and have ones name written in the
appropriate places. The buyer could select the number and choice of chapters, the number and quality of
illustrations and the length. Scrolls ranged from fifteen feet to ninety feet by twelve to eighteen inches tall.
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht
From
Thebes, Egypt
Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC
Nakht
was a royal scribe and overseer of the army (general) at the end of the
Eighteenth Dynasty (about
1550-1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully
illustrated example.
Chapter 117 of the Book of the Dead is a spell for taking the road to
Rosetjau, the burial place of Osiris.
The vignettes include scenes showing
Anubis taking Nakht towards a false door, the offering place in the
tomb
through which the spirit of the deceased entered and left the next world.
Nakht is also shown receiving
a libation (liquid offering) from the tree
goddess, and being subjected to the Opening of the Mouth ritual by
the
hawk-headed god, Horus.
The figures of Nakht appear squat when compared to 'classic' Egyptian
art. The slightly strange
proportions, seen also in the tombs of Horemheb
and Ramesses I in the Valley of the Kings, are typical of
representation
at the end of the Eighteenth and early Nineteenth Dynasties. It is thought
that this is the
result of a readjustment of the artistic canon of proportions
after the Amarna Period. The 'transparency' of
the figures is also interesting:
we can see the legs of Nakht through his white over-robe, and his feet
are
visible through the pool of water in the centre.
Length:
71.3 cm (frame)
Width: 39.2 cm (frame)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any
From
Thebes, Egypt
19th Dynasty, around 1250 BC
Chapter
17 of theBook
of the Dead is a long and complicated spell, with an equally long history.
It is
essentially a statement of religious doctrines relating to the sun-god
Re. It includes statements with
explanatory glosses on the meaning of
the text, introduced in the original by text in red, saying, for
example
'what does it mean?' or 'in other words'. This suggests that it was at
some point felt necessary to
explain an obscure text, though to us many
of the glosses seem more complex than the basic text.
The text is accompanied by a range of vignettes (illustrations). On the
left Any and his wife Tutu are
shown at left playing the senet board game
(which can be a metaphor for a man travelling into the next
world, like
a playing piece on the board), while in front of the booth their ba spirits
are shown as human
headed birds, perched on top of their tomb. The two
lions are those of the horizon over whose backs the
sun rises daily, while
the bird to the right is the benu, the phoenix-like bird and soul of the
sun-god Re. At
the right Any's mummy lies under a canopy, attended on
by two birds identified as Isis and Nephthys.
Length:
71.3 cm (frame)
Width: 42 cm (frame)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any
From
Thebes, Egypt
19th Dynasty, around 1275 BC
The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris
This
scene from the Book of the Dead of Any reads from left to right. At the
left, Any and his wife enter the
judgement area. In the centre are the
scales used for weighing the heart, attended by Anubis, the god of
embalming.
The process is also observed by Any's ba spirit (the human-headed bird),
two birth-goddesses
and a male figure representing his destiny. Any's heart, represented as the hieroglyph for 'heart' (a mammal
heart),
sits on the left pan of the scales. It is being weighed against a feather,
the symbol of Maat, the
principle of order, which in this context means
'what is right'. The ancient Egyptians believed that the heart
was the
seat of the emotions, the intellect and the character, and thus represented
the good or bad aspects
of a person's life. If the heart did not balance
out with the feather, then the deceased were condemned to
non-existence,
and was consumed by the ferocious 'devourer', the strange beast, part-crocodile,
part-lion,
and part-hippopotamus, shown at the right of this scene.
However, a papyrus devoted to ensuring the continued existence of the
deceased is not likely to depict this
happening. Once the judgement is
completed, the deceased was declared 'true of voice' or 'justified', a
standard epithet applied to dead individuals in their texts. The whole
process is recorded by the ibis-headed
deity Thoth. At the top twelve
deities supervise the judgement.
Compare this with a vignette from the Book of
the Dead of Hunefer, also
in The British Museum.
Length:
44.5 cm (frame)
Width: 30.7 cm (frame)
Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer
From
Thebes, Egypt
19th Dynasty, around 1300 BC
Rites before the tomb
This
is an excellent example of one of the many fine vignettes (illustrations)
from the Book of the Dead of
Hunefer. The centrepiece of the upper scene is the mummy of Hunefer, shown supported
by the god Anubis or a
priest wearing a jackal mask). Hunefer's wife and
daughter mourn, and three priests perform rituals. The two
priests with
white sashes are carrying out the Opening of the Mouth ritual. The white
building at the right is a
representation of the tomb, complete with portal
doorway and small pyramid. Both these features can be seen
in real tombs
of this date from Thebes. To the left of the tomb is a picture of the
stela which would have stood
to one side of the tomb entrance. Following
the normal conventions of Egyptian art, it is shown much larger
than normal
size, in order that its content (the deceased worshipping Osiris, together
with a standard offering
formula) is absolutely legible. At the right of the lower scene is a table bearing the various implements
needed
for the Opening of the Mouth ritual. At the left is shown a ritual,
where the foreleg of a calf, cut off while the
animal is alive, is offered.
The animal was then sacrificed. The calf is also shown, together with
its mother, who
might be interpreted as showing signs of distress.
Height:
45.7 cm (frame)
Length: 83.4 cm (frame)
Page from the Book of the Dead of Nebseny
From
a Memphite cemetery, probably Saqarra, Egypt
18th
Dynasty, around 1400 BC
The couple receiving offerings
The
scene of an owner and his or her spouse (here Nebseny and his wife, Senseneb)
receiving offerings, is
often shown in Books of the Dead. Such offerings
are conventionally the duty of the eldest son, and indeed the
horizontal
row of hieroglyphs over the man at the left names him as 'their son, Ptahmose'.
The hieroglyphs
above, which give the text of the offering prayer, is
written in what is known as 'retrograde' style. While a
hieroglyphic text
normally starts at the end to which the birds, animals and humans face,
a 'retrograde' text
should be read starting at the opposite end. In this
case, the text begins at the left and continues to the right,
and reflects
the words coming away from the priest at the left.
The papyrus of Nebseny is among the earlier
examples in The British Museum,
and the accompanying vignettes (illustrations) are not coloured. Nebseny
was a temple copyist, whose job was probably to make copies of temple
documents for archives, as well as
writing out new ones. Ir is possible
that he may have drawn the pictures himself rather than pay a specialist
papyrus illustrator.
Length:
65.8 cm
Height: 35.8 cm
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of AnhaiFrom Thebes, Egypt
21st Dynasty, around 1050 BC
The 'Negative Confession' before the gods
The
final judgement of the deceased was a popular vignette (illustrated scene)
in the ancient Egyptian Book
of the Dead. It accompanied the spell in
which the heart of the deceased declares before a tribunal of forty
two
gods that he or she has not committed a long list of specific sins. This
is known as the 'Negative
Confession'. The heart was prevented from lying
or informing against the deceased by a spell on the back of
the heart
scarab placed over the heart on the mummy. At the same time, the heart of the deceased is
weighed against either
a figure of Maat, or her symbol, the feather. This goddess embodied the
concepts of
justice, truth and balance. In this example, Anhai is shown
on the right of the scene, adoring the gods, and
holding a sistrum and
convolvulus vine. The weighing of the heart itself is illustrated between
Anhai and the
tribunal. The emphasis on the tribunal, with its two rows
of crouching bird- and animal-headed deities, is
unusual. At the bottom
is the goddess Maat, wearing the feather on her head. Above is Horus with
the scales,
with Thoth at the top ready to record the outcome.
Length:
73.5 cm (frame)
Width: 45.7 cm (frame)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht
From
Thebes, Egypt
Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC
Agricultural scenes
Nakht
was a royal scribe and overseer of the army (general) at the end of the
Eighteenth Dynasty (about
1550-1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully
illustrated example.
This papyrus shows Spell 110, a series of addresses to deities who dwell
in the 'next world', specifically in the
Field of Offering and the Field
of Rushes. The deceased was expected to undertake agricultural work in
the
Field of Rushes. The vignette evolved from a map of the Field in the earlier Coffin Texts.
It shows areas of land
surrounded by water. Nakht is shown with Thoth
at top right, with the balance and feather of Maat (referring to
the Judgement
Scene). He then paddles his boat across the Lake of Offerings where two
mummiform deities
stand before a table of offerings. Nakht is also shown
worshipping the Heron of Plenty. He is shown pulling flax,
reaping, and
ploughing below. The boat of Wennefer (a name for the god Osiris), shown
with a head of a snake,
is moored in a channel of the water at the bottom.
Three deities of the ennead (group of nine gods) are shown
bottom right.
Height:
34 cm
Vignette from the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru
From
the burial of Nesitanebtashru, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes
21st
Dynasty, around 1025 BC
Shu supporting Nut: the separation of the earth from heaven by the god of the air
This
vignette is part of the Greenfield papyrus, the Book of the Dead of the
priestess Nesitanebtashru,
daughter of High Priest Pinudjem I. It is named
after Mrs Edith Greenfield, the donor of the papyrus to the
British Museum,
whose husband acquired it in Egypt in 1880.
It is one of the best surviving examples of a funerary papyrus. The original
document was over thirty-seven
metres long, with spells illustrated by
a series of vignettes. One of the most important scenes shows an
episode
in the creation of the world, according to the Heliopolitan myth. The
myth centres on the Heliopolitan
god Atum as the creator. He and three
generations of his descendants are known as the Great Ennead.
According to the myth Atum created his two offspring Tefnut (moisture)
and Shu (air) by sneezing and spitting.
They in turn gave birth to Nut
(heaven) and Geb (earth). This vignette shows Nut stretched over the earth,
represented by Geb, who lies below her. The toes of the goddess are at
the eastern horizon, and her fingertips
at the western horizon. She is
separated from Geb by her father Shu, who holds her up with both hands.
This
separation did not prevent Geb and Nut having four children: Osiris,
Isis, Seth and Nephthys. The myths
surrounding these four deities relate
to the emergence of human society; the separation of earth and sky
constitutes
the creation of the world.
Length:
93 cm (frame)
Width: 53.5 cm (frame)
Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer
From
Thebes, Egypt
19th Dynasty, around 1275 BC
The judgement of the dead in the presence of Osiris
This
is an excellent example of one of the many fine vignettes (illustrations)
from the Book of the Dead of
Hunefer. The scene reads from left to right.
To the left, Anubis brings Hunefer into the judgement area. Anubis
is
also shown supervizing the judgement scales. Hunefer's heart, represented
as a pot, is being weighed
against a feather, the symbol of Maat, the
established order of things, in this context meaning 'what is right'.
The ancient Egyptians believed that the heart was the seat of the emotions,
the intellect and the character, and
thus represented the good or bad
aspects of a person's life. If the heart did not balance with the feather,
then
the dead person was condemned to non-existence, and consumption by
the ferocious 'devourer', the strange
beast shown here which is part-crocodile,
part-lion, and part-hippopotamus.
However, as a papyrus devoted to ensuring Hunefer's continued existence
in the Afterlife is not likely to depict
this outcome, he is shown to
the right, brought into the presence of Osiris by his son Horus, having
become
'true of voice' or 'justified'. This was a standard epithet applied
to dead individuals in their texts. Osiris is
shown seated under a canopy,
with his sisters Isis and Nephthys. At the top, Hunefer is shown adoring
a row of
deities who supervise the judgement.
Height: 39 cm
Detail of the funerary papyrus of Taminiu, showing demons
From
Thebes, Egypt
Third Intermediate Period, around 950 BC
The demons which the deceased must pass on the way to the Afterlife
There
were many obstacles on the path to the Afterlife in ancient Egyptian belief.
They often took the form of
demons. The various funerary books were intended
as assistance to the deceased, with the spells needed to
overcome every
problem. Some Underworld demons guarded the gates to the Mansion of Osiris, where
the
deceased was judged. These were often depicted, as here, in a mummified
form, crouching and holding sharp
knives. The demons were often shown
with their heads twisted round behind them, or face on. Most had the
heads
of recognizable animals, often ones that were no threat in the living
world, such as rams or hares. Others,
like the double snake-headed demon,
were creatures of fantasy. Another demon gatekeeper was the upright
snake,
with human arms and legs. This individual was the last guardian who stood
at the doorway of the
judgement chamber. The other scene on this papyrus shows the deceased woman, Taminiu, receiving
cool water
from Nut, appearing as a sycamore goddess. Her ba, the small
human-headed bird, is at her feet. Behind her is
the goddess Maat, whose
head is replaced by the feather that is her emblem.
Height: 28 cm (full sheet)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Any
From
Thebes, Egypt
19th Dynasty, around 1250 BC
Vignettes showing agricultural scenes
These
vignettes (small scenes that illustrate the text) accompany Spell 110
of Any's Book of the Dead. Spell
110 is essentially a series of addresses
to deities who dwell in the 'next world', specifically the Field of Offering
and Field of Rushes. The deceased was expected to undertake agricultural
work in the Field of Rushes.|
The vignette schematically renders areas of land surrounded by water.
Any is shown offering to three deities of
the ennead (group of nine gods)
at the top, and then paddling his boat across the Lake of Offerings. Any
is also
shown worshipping the 'Western Falcon' and the 'Heron of Plenty'.
He is shown reaping, winnowing and ploughing
below. The boat of Wennefer
(a name for the god Osiris), shown with a head of a snake, is moored on
the edge of
the water at the bottom.
Length:
70 cm (frame)
Width: 42.2 cm (frame)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Padiamenet
From
Egypt
Third Intermediate Period, around 1000 BC
The head baker of the estate of Amun
This
is the only known sheet of the papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Padiamenet,
who was the head baker of
the estate of Amun. The 'estate of Amun' is
a very wide-ranging term which covers the physical and economic
areas
controlled in association with the cult. This can include areas outside
the cult centre in Thebes.
Books of the Dead usually begin with an introductory hymn to the sun god,
Re, and/or a hymn to Osiris,
accompanied by a vignette of the deceased
before one of the deities. This vignette shows Padiamenet burning
incense
for Osiris. Some food (bread and onions) and lotus flowers stand as offerings
on the table, while
underneath stand two jars, one of which is a wine
jar with a lotus bud and stalk coiled around it.
The use of the colour blue is very striking. Osiris' blue robe is particularly
unusual, since by convention he
usually wears white or red. Blue food
offerings are also unconventional. Blue, like green, is a colour associated
with new life and rebirth, which is probably the intended symbolism here.
Length:
100 cm (frame)
Width: 28 cm (frame)
Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nakht
From Thebes, Egypt Late 18th Dynasty, 1350-1300 BC
Nakht and his wife worshipping Osiris
Nakht
was a royal scribe and overseer of the army ('general') at the end of
the Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1550
1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a
beautifully illustrated example. Chapter 15 of the Book of the Dead is a
collection of hymns loosely associated
with the worship of the sun-god at the setting of the sun. The mixture
is so
diverse that it can also include the worship of Osiris, god of the
dead and keeper of the Underworld. This sheet
shows the wonderful scene
of Nakht and Tjuiu, his wife, adoring Osiris and Maat, who represents
the established
order of things. The scene also includes a single-storey house and a garden. This picture
is often taken as visual
evidence for how ancient Egyptians lived, but
an Egyptian representation is rarely what it seems; pictorial
elements
nearly always have hidden meanings, particularly in a papyrus intended
for guidance in the Afterlife. The
house is probably there as an expression
of the deceased's wish to return to earth. In fact, Spell 132 of the Book
of the Dead expressly refers to this. The pool is also symbolic of rebirth
and resurrection, with other scenes
showing the ba spirits of the deceased
drinking from pools, or the tree-goddess pouring water for the dead in
the
area of the pool.
Height: 36 cm
